Anatomy and Pathology workshop and RCS Library visit

3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment

Unit 1: Molecules, Diet, Transport and Health

• Understand why many animals have a heart and circulation (mass transport to overcome the limitations of diffusion in meeting the requirements of organisms)
• Know the cardiac cycle (atrial systole, ventricular systole and cardiac diastole) and relate the structure and operation of the mammalian heart, including the major blood vessels, to its function
• Recommended Additional Practical: Investigate the structure of a mammalian heart by dissection
• Understand why people’s perception of risks are often different from the actual risks, including underestimating and overestimating the risks due to diet and other lifestyle factors in the development of heart disease
• Understand how people use scientific knowledge about the effect of diet, including obesity indicators, such as body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio, exercise and smoking to reduce their risk of coronary heart disease
• Know how factors such as genetics, diet, age, gender, high blood pressure, smoking and inactivity increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD)
• Understand the link between dietary antioxidants and the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD)
• Know the benefits and risks of treatments for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (antihypertensives, statins, anticoagulants and platelet inhibitors)

Module 3: Exchange and transport

• The external and internal structure of the mammalian heart
• The dissection, examination and drawing of the external and internal structure of the mammalian heart
• The cardiac cycle

Component 3: Requirements for Life

• Mammal double circulatory system
• The mammalian circulatory system including the structure and function of heart and blood vessels and the names of the main blood vessels associated with the human hear
• Specified Practical Work: Dissection of mammalian heart

Unit 2: Human biology and health

Unit 2: Human biology and health

• causes – atherosclerosis, hypertension
• primary effects – heart attack, angina, heart failure
• secondary effects – shortness of breath, dizziness, nausea and vomiting
• body systems – cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• Double circulation (including overview of anatomy of double circulation)
• Structure and function of the heart and its parts
• Outline of disorders associated with the cardiovascular system: for example, cardiovascular disease (CVD) (diseases of the heart or blood vessels and includes atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, heart disease and stroke)

• Connect with Blood vessel (see the section below)
• Causes and consequences of occlusion of the coronary arteries: Evaluate epidemiological data relating to the incidence of coronary heart disease
• Adaptations of the mammalian heart for delivering pressurized blood to the arteries: Include form–function adaptations of these structures: cardiac muscle, pacemaker, atria, ventricles, atrioventricular and semilunar valves, septum and coronary vessels
• Stages in the cardiac cycle: Understand the sequence of events in the left side of the heart that follow the initiation of the heartbeat by the sinoatrial node (the “pacemaker”)

• nutrition and diet choices affecting body mass index – obesity increases risk of developing range of disease including heart disease
• smoking – increased risk of heart disease
• low physical activity – risk factor for a range of long-term conditions, including heart disease
• consumption of alcohol – long-term effects include organ damage including heart, and increased risk of hypertension and heart disease
• substance abuse and addiction – longer term effects include risk of heart disease, cancer and hepatitis

3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment

3.3.2 Gas Exchange

• Structure of the human gas exchange system including the alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi, trachea and lung
• Ventilation and the exchange of gases
• Information relating to the effects of lung disease on gas exchange and/or ventilation
• Information relating to the effects of pollution and smoking on the incidence of lung disease
• Information relating to specific risk factors and the incidence of lung disease

• The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal – Names are required only of the coronary arteries and of the blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys

Module 3: Exchange and transport

3.1 Exchange and transport

• The structures and functions of the components of the mammalian gaseous exchange system
• The mechanism of ventilation in mammals

Component 3: Requirements for Life

1. Adaptations for gas exchange

2. Adaptations

• The common features of the specialised respiratory surfaces of larger animals and the adaptation of respiratory surfaces to environmental conditions - fish have gills for aquatic environments and mammals have lungs for terrestrial environments
• The structure and function of the human breathing system, including examination of microscope slides of T.S. lung and trachea
• Ventilation in humans and how gases are exchanged
• The function of red blood cells and plasma in relation to transport of respiratory gases, dissociation curves of haemoglobin of mammal (adult and foetus), including examination of microscope slides of erythrocytes

• The following diseases in terms of the types of organisms; source of infection; tissue affected; mode of transmission; prevention; control methods and treatment, including vaccines: Bacterial infections: tuberculosis

Unit 2: Human biology and health

B2 The respiratory system

• The structure and function of trachea and lungs, including the bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli
• Ventilation

Unit 2: Human biology and health

C1 The main disorders of the body systems

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

D2 The respiratory system

• Overview of anatomy of respiratory system
• The structural adaptations of alveoli that allow gas exchange
• Features of the airways
• Role in ventilation

Unit 4: Diseases, disorders, treatments and therapies

B1 Physiological diseases and disorders

• Cancer – lung

• How lifestyle choices impact good health and wellbeing: smoking – increases the risk of lung cancer, as well as other cancers

• The role of the components in performing the functions of the respiratory system: trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleural membranes, ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm
• Functions of relevant components within the respiratory system: inspiration and expiration, including pressure changes within the chest cavity, gas exchange
• The role of the alveoli as a specialised exchange surface in the process of gas exchange: how adaptation of the alveoli maximises the rate of diffusion
• The development, impact and management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): causes of the disease, impact on systems within the body and on physical and mental health, how common treatments relieve symptoms

3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment

• During digestion, large biological molecules are hydrolysed to smaller molecules that can be absorbed across cell membranes, covering organs including ileum

Component 3: Requirements for Life

• The adaptations of the human gut to a mixed, omnivorous diet that includes both plant and animal material, including examination of microscope slides of duodenum and ileum

• The primary functions of additional body systems and how they link to other systems to include digestive system: role of the alimentary canal – oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon, and the accessory organs – liver, pancreas, gallbladder and salivary glands, in the breakdown and absorption of food materials.

Unit 2: Human biology and health

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• Appearance and location (as seen on diagrams) of components of the digestive tract: mouth and salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon and rectum
• Appearance and location (as seen on diagrams) of components of accessory organs: liver, gall bladder and pancreas
• Digestion, absorption and assimilation of macronutrients
• Stomach (site of more mechanical digestion and chemical digestion and action of pepsin
• Duodenum (action of bile, action of pancreatic enzymes – lipase, amylase and trypsin)
• Ileum
• Large intestine and small intestine
• Outline of disorders of the digestive system: gastric ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and coeliac disease

• The role of the components in performing the functions of the digestive system: mouth ▪ oesophagus ▪ stomach ▪ pancreas ▪ liver ▪ duodenum, ileum and colon, including layers of the gastrointestinal tract ▪ associated glands linked to these components, including salivary glands in the mouth, gall bladder and bile duct
• Function of relevant components within the digestive system: chemical digestion ▪ physical digestion ▪ absorption processes
• The development, impact and management of Crohn’s disease: cause, impact, treatment

3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment

• The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal – Names are required only of the coronary arteries and of the blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys

3.6.4 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment (A-level only)

• The role of the liver in glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

Component 3: Requirements for Life

• The structure of the mammalian kidney and the nephron, including examination of microscope slides and electron micrographs of kidney
• The functions of the mammalian kidney including nitrogenous excretion and water regulation
• The adaptations of the cells of the proximal tubule for reabsorption
• The effects of kidney failure and its potential treatments
• The need for different excretory products and adaptations of the loop of Henlé in different environments
• Specified Practical Work: Dissection of kidney

Unit 2: Human biology and health

B4 The endocrine and renal systems

• The role of the hypothalamus in controlling the endocrine system

Unit 2: Human biology and health

• Diabetes – type 1 and type 2:
  • causes – type 1: the body produces insufficient insulin, or none at all; type 2: the body produces insufficient insulin and/or becomes insulin resistant
  • primary effects – uncontrolled blood sugar levels leading to weight change, blurred vision, feeling thirsty, hunger, mood changes, tiredness, excessive urination, itching, thrush infections, cuts and wounds heal slowly
  • secondary effects – heart disease and stroke, nerve damage, foot problems, vision loss, miscarriage and stillbirth, kidney problems, sexual problems 
  • body systems – endocrine, cardiovascular, nervous, immune, digestive, reproductive

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• The functions of the kidneys: excretion and osmoregulation
• The relationship between the structure, function and processes of the renal system (which, along with the lungs, makes up the excretory system)
• Overview of anatomy of the renal system
• Outline of disorders of the renal system (overview of causes, symptoms and treatment): kidney failure and kidney stones

• How lifestyle choices impact good health and wellbeing: nutrition and diet choices affecting body mass index – obesity increases risk of developing range of disease including type 2 diabetes; consumption of alcohol – long-term effects include organ damage including liver and pancreas

• The role of the components in performing the functions of the endocrine system: hypothalamus ▪ pituitary ▪ thyroid ▪ parathyroid ▪ adrenals ▪ ovaries ▪ testes ▪ pancreas
• Functions of relevant components within the endocrine system: the production and secretion of hormones: the activity of common hormones and their specificity in relation to target cells/organs: ▪ thyroxine ▪ cortisol ▪ oestrogens ▪ testosterone ▪ gastrin ▪ growth hormone ▪ follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• The development, impact and management of diabetes: causes of type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes; impact and treatment
• The role of the components in performing the functions of the renal system: ▪ kidney nephron (Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct) ▪ ureter ▪bladder ▪ urethra
• Functions of the renal system: ▪ removal of waste products from the body ▪ process of urine production
• The development, impact and management of chronic kidney disease (CKD): cause, impact and treatment

3.3 Organisms exchange substances with their environment

• The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal – Names are required only of the coronary arteries and of the blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys
• The structure of arteries, arterioles and veins in relation to their function.
• The structure of capillaries and the importance of capillary beds as exchange surfaces
• The formation of tissue fluid and its return to the circulatory system

Module 3: Exchange and transport

• The structure and functions of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins

Component 3: Requirements for Life

• Connected with Heart: The mammalian circulatory system including the structure and function of heart and blood vessels and the names of the main blood vessels associated with the human heart

Unit 2: Human biology and health

• The structure and function of blood vessels: arteries, veins, capillaries

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• The structural features and functions of blood vessels
• How the structures of the vessels adapt them for their functions
• Linkages with cardiovascular disease (CVD) (diseases of the heart or blood vessels and includes atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, heart disease and stroke)

• Adaptations of arteries for the transport of blood away from the heart: Understand how the layers of muscle and elastic tissue in the walls of arteries help them to withstand and maintain high blood pressures
• Adaptations of veins for the return of blood to the heart: Include valves to prevent backflow and the flexibility of the wall to allow it to be compressed by muscle action

• The role of the components in performing the functions of the cardiovascular system: arteries, veins and capillaries

• The structure of the appendicular and axial skeleton (pectoral and pelvic girdles, forelimb and hind limb)
• The types of fractures that can occur in the skeleton and their causes
• The structure and function of the vertebral column, general structure of a vertebra and the differences between cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae and be able to relate them to their function
• Postural deformities, including scoliosis, their causes and treatment
• The functions of the skeleton, including support, muscle attachment, protection, production of red blood cells and as a store of calcium

Unit 2: Human biology and health

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

C1 The skeleton

• Names and locations of bones and structures: the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton – limbs and limb girdles, the functions of the skeleton (protection, support, movement, blood cell protection, storage of calcium and phosphate), basic structure of a typical long bone

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• Outline of disorders – osteoarthritis, osteoporosis/rickets, Duchenne muscular dystrophy and Myasthenia gravis

• Roles of skeletons as anchorage for muscles and as levers: arthropods have exoskeletons and vertebrates have endoskeletons

• How lifestyle choices impact good health and wellbeing: consumption of alcohol – effects on the brain including cognitive function, neurotransmitters and brain tissue

• Structure of the musculoskeletal system:
  • Anatomical skeletal structure: cranium ▪ vertebrae ▪ clavicle ▪ sternum ▪ rib cage ▪ humerus ▪ radius ▪ ulna ▪ carpals ▪ metacarpals ▪ phalanges ▪ pelvis ▪ femur ▪ tibia ▪ fibula ▪ tarsals ▪ metatarsals
  • Types of bones: long ▪ short ▪ flat ▪ irregular ▪ sesamoid
  • Types of joints: fibrous ▪ cartilaginous ▪ synovial
• Functions of relevant component within the musculoskeletal system: skeleton - provides support, protection, attachment for muscles/ligaments, is a source of blood production and stores minerals
• The development, impact and management of rheumatoid arthritis: cause, impact, treatment

Module 5: Communication, homeostasis and energy

• The organisation of the mammalian nervous system
• The structure of the human brain and the functions of its parts

• The structure of the human brain – the position of the cerebrum, hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebellum and medulla oblongata
• The main functions of the cerebrum, hypothalamus, cerebellum and medulla oblongata
• The role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Unit 2: Human biology and health

B3 The nervous system

• The structure and function of central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Unit 2: Human biology and health

• Stroke:
  • causes – blocked artery (ischaemic stroke) or burst blood vessel (haemorrhagic stroke)
  • primary effects – brain damage, bleeding and clotting in the brain
  • secondary effects – muscle weakness, lack of co-ordination, dysphasia, increased incidence of respiratory infections
  • body systems – cardiovascular, nervous and musculoskeletal

• Dementia – Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia:
• causes – Alzheimer’s disease: build-up of proteins within and around brain cells · vascular dementia: reduced blood flow to the brain caused by narrowing of blood vessels, strokes and transient ischaemic attacks (TIAs)
• primary effects – disrupted cognitive function
• secondary effects – significant slowness of thought and confusion, memory loss, problems concentrating, severe personality changes, depression, incontinence, difficulties swallowing or coughing
• body systems – nervous system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system
• Acquired brain injury – traumatic and non-traumatic:
  • causes – · traumatic: blow to the head or brain damage that occurs after birth · non-traumatic: caused by e.g. infection, disease, lack of oxygen
  • primary effects – concussion, unconsciousness and coma, amnesia, damage to blood vessels in the brain
  • secondary effects – traumatic: headaches and dizziness, memory loss, fatigue, personality changes; both: delayed growth and development (in children), issues with balance and coordination, cognitive, sensory and physical impairments, irritability, sleep disturbance
  • body systems – nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal

Unit 1: Principles of human physiology, anatomy and pathology

• Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nerves
• The structure and function of neurones (sensory, motor and relay neurones)
• Outline of disorders of the nervous system (brief overview): Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis (MS) and ALS amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig’s disease)

• The brain as a central information integration organ: Limit to the role of the brain in processing information combined from several inputs and in learning and memory
• The spinal cord as an integrating centre for unconscious processes
• Role of the cerebellum in coordinating skeletal muscle contraction and balance

• How lifestyle choices impact good health and wellbeing: consumption of alcohol – weakens bones, increases risk of fracturing and breaks

• The role of the components in performing the functions of the nervous system: components of the nervous system: brain and spinal cord
• Function of the relevant component of the nervous system: ▪ sensory neurones carry impulses from receptors to the central nervous system (CNS) ▪ motor neurones carry impulses away from the CNS to effectors ▪ the process of synaptic transmission and the function of the components of a motor neurone
• The development, impact and management of Parkinson’s disease: cause, impact and treatment